Although, these results give the impression that forward and backward verbal and visuospatial span tasks likely measure different constructs, experimental and neural correlated findings regarding serial recall tasks are not consistent, suggesting a need for further research. In the DST, performance is usually worse in the backward version of the task ( Baddeley, 1986 Li and Lewandowsky, 1995), while recall of the forward and backward versions of the CST is much the same for most subjects ( Wilde and Strauss, 2002 Cornoldi and Mammarella, 2008). In both verbal and visuospatial span tasks, participants may be asked to recall the information in either forward or backward order. Verbal STM is generally tested with the digit span task (DST) that involves recalling sequences of digits, while the ability to retrieve visuospatial information is typically tested with the Corsi span task (CST) that involves recalling sequences of blocks ( Berch et al., 1998). One of the processes involved in serial recall is short-term memory (STM), which allows individuals to hold a small amount of information for a short period of time. However, the cognitive mechanisms underlying encoding and recall of verbal and visuospatial sequences are still not fully understood. The ability to process serially ordered information is fundamental to many aspects of our lives, including spelling and orientation to a new environment. The results of this review will be considered in the light of the current models of WM, and will be used to make recommendations for future studies. The main aim of the present review is to summarize findings on order recall in verbal and visuospatial materials by considering both cognitive and neural correlates. However, worse performance in backward visuospatial recall is evident in individuals with weak visuospatial abilities such individuals perform worse in the backward version of visuospatial tasks than in the forward version. In contrast, when it comes to visuospatial tasks, performance is not always worse for a modified backward sequence. In verbal span tasks, performance is worse when recalling things in backward sequence rather than the original forward sequence. This seems to be due to the different effects of forward and backward recall in verbal and visuospatial tasks.
Studies with order recall tasks, such as the digit, and Corsi span, indicate that order of presentation is a crucial element for verbal memory, but not for visuospatial memory. How sequential, verbal and visuospatial stimuli are encoded and stored in memory is not clear in cognitive psychology. 2Department of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.1Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.For the group as a whole, working memory was strongly related to mental age.Enrica Donolato 1 *, David Giofrè 2 and Irene C. Children with moderate learning disabilities were indistinguishable from children with mild learning disabilities on simple span tasks, but were significantly poorer than the mild group on the more demanding complex span tasks. Children with borderline learning disabilities were just as good as children with average abilities on visuo-spatial and complex span tasks, but showed an impairment on phonological span tasks. Children with mild and moderate learning disabilities were impaired on all measures of working memory compared to children of average abilities. Seven measures of working memory span were used to assess temporary phonological short-term storage (digit span, word span), temporary visuo-spatial short-term storage (pattern span, spatial span), and temporary short-term storage with additional processing, or central executive, demands (listening span. Comparisons with children of average abilities were used to determine whether those with more severe learning disabilities had greater impairments in working memory. Working memory performance was examined in children aged 11-12 years who had borderline, mild, and moderate learning disabilities.
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